Old Latin
historyOld Latin (also called Early Latin or Archaic Latin) refers to the Latin language in the period before the age of Classical Latin; that is, all Latin before 75 BC.
Phonology
Phonological characteristics of older Latin are the case endings -os and -om (later Latin -us and -um), as well as the existence of diphthongs such as oi and ei (later Latin ū or oe, and ī). Also the letter C is used to represent both Classical C and G.Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar, reprinted 1983, New Rochelle: Aristide D. Caratzas, p. 1. ISBN 0-89241-331-X. In many locations, classical Latin turned intervocalic s into r, which is called rhotacism. This rhotacism had implications for declension: early classical Latin, honos, honoris; Classical honor, honoris ("honor"). Some Old Latin texts preserve s in this position, such as the Carmen Arvale's lases for lares.
Existing examples
, albeit irregularly. From a rubbing by Domenico Comparetti.]]
Notable Old Latin fragments still in existence include:
- The Praeneste fibula (7th century BC, but thought to be a fake)
- The Forum inscription (illustration, right) (circa 550 BC)
- The Duenos inscription (circa 500 BC)
- The Castor-Pollux dedication (circa 500 BC)
- The Garigliano Bowl (circa 500 BC)
- The preserved fragments of the laws of the Twelve Tables (traditionally, 449 BC, attested much later)
- The Tibur pedestal (circa 400 BC)
- The Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus (186 BC)
- The Lapis Satricanus
- The Vase Inscription from Ardea
- The Corcolle Altar fragments
- The Carmen Arvale
- The Carmen Saliare
- The Scipionum Elogia
Grammar and Morphology (Differences from Classical Latin)
Nouns
First declension (a)
The 'A-Stem Declension'. Nouns of this declension usually end in –a and are typically feminine.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
!colspan="2"| puella, –aī
''girl, maiden f.'''
|-
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| puella || puellai
|-
! Genitive
| puellās/-es/-aī || puellōm/ -āsom
|-
! Dative
| puellai || puellaīs/-eīs/ -abos
|-
! Accusative
| puellam || puellā
|-
! Ablative
| puellād || puellaīs/-eīs/ -abos
|-
! Vocative
| puella || puellai
|-
! Locative
| puellā || puellaīs/-eīs
|}
The 'O-Stem Declension'. Nouns of this declension are either masculine or neuter.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
!colspan="2"| campos, –oī
''field, plain m.'''
!colspan="2"| saxom, –oī
''rock, stone n.'''
|-
! Singular || Plural
! Singular || Plural
|-
! Nominative
| campos || campoī || saxom || saxa
|-
! Genitive
| campoī || campōm/ -ōsom || saxoī || saxōm/ -ōsom
|-
! Dative
| campoī || campoīs || saxoī || saxoīs
|-
! Accusative
| campom || campōs || saxom || saxa
|-
! Ablative
| campōd || campoīs || saxōd || saxoīs/ -oes
|-
! Vocative
| campe || campoī || saxe || saxoī
|-
! Locative
| campō || campoīs || saxō || saxoīs/ -oes
|}
Note the genitive plural ending has two endings: the earlier -ōm, almost exactly like the Ancient Greek -ōn, and the later Archaic Latin form -ōsom. Due to the fact that in Archaic Latin r's and s's were often interchangeable, a phenomenon known as rhotacism, the later -ōsom evolved into the Classical Latin -ōrum.
Third declension (c)
The 'E-Stem ' and 'I-Stem ' Declension. This declension contains nouns that are masculine, feminine, and neuter.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2"| Regs –es
''king m.'''
|-
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| regs || reges
|-
! Genitive
| regis || regōm
|-
! Dative
| regei || regebos
|-
! Accusative
| regem || reges
|-
! Ablative
| regeid || regebos
|-
! Vocative
| regs || reges
|-
! Locative
| regei || regebos
|}
The nominative as regs instead of rex shows a common feature in Old Latin; the letter x was seldom used alone to designate the ks or gs sound, but instead, written as either 'ks', 'cs', or even 'xs'.
Personal Prounouns
Personal pronouns are among the most common thing found in Old Latin inscriptions. Note how in all three persons, the ablative singular ending is identical to the accusative singular.
{| class="wikitable" ! ! Ego, ''I ! Tu, ''You ! Suī, ''Himself, Herself, Etc. |- | Nominative | ego | tu | - |- | Genitive | mis | tis | sei |- | Dative | mihei, mehei | tibei | sibei |- | Accusative | mēd | tēd | sēd |- | Ablative | mēd | tēd | sēd |- | | Plural | | |- | Nominative | nōs | vōs | - |- | Genitive | nostrōm, -ōrum, -i | vostrōm, -ōrum, -i | sei |- | Dative | nōbeis, nis | vōbeis | sibei |- | Accusative | nōs | vōs | sēd |- | Ablative | nōbeis, nis | vōbeis | sēd |}
The Relative Prounoun
In Old Latin, the relative pronoun is also another common concept, especially in inscriptions. Unfortunately, the forms are quite inconsistent and leave much to be reconstructed by scholars.
{| class="wikitable" !colspan="4"| queī, quaī, quod ''who, what |- ! ! Masculine ! Feminine ! Neuter |- | Nominative | queī | quaī | quod |- | Genitive | quoius, quoios | quoia | quoium, quoiom |- | Dative | colspan=3| quoī, queī, quoieī, queī |- | Accusative | quem | quam | quod |- | Ablative | quī, quōd | quād | quōd |- | | Plural | | |- | Nominative | ques, queis | quaī | qua |- | Genitive | quōm, quōrom | quōm, quārom | quōm, quōrom |- | Dative |colspan=3| queis, quīs |- | Accusative | quōs | quās | quōs |- | Ablative |colspan=3| queis, quīs |}
Verbs
Old Present and Perfects
There is not much actual proof of the inflection of Old Latin verb forms and the few carvings we have hold many inconsistencies between forms. Therefore, the forms below are ones that are both proven by scholars through Old Latin carvings, and recreated by scholars based on other early Indo-European languages such as Greek and Italic dialects such as Oscan and Umbrian.
{| class="wikitable" |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" !rowspan="3"| !colspan="4"| Indicative Present: Sum !colspan="4"| Indicative Present: Facio |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" !colspan="2"| Old !colspan="2"| Classical !colspan="2"| Old !colspan="2"| Classical |- |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" ! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | First Person | som, esom || somos, sumos || sum || sumus || fac(e/ī)o || fac(e)imos || faciō || facimus |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | Second Person | es || esteīs || es || estis || fac(e/ī)s || fac(e/ī)teis || facis || facitis |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | Third Person | est || sont || est|| sunt || fac(e/ī)d/-(e/i)t || fac(e/ī)ont || facit || faciunt |}
{| class="wikitable" |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" !rowspan="3"| !colspan="4"| Indicative Perfect: Sum !colspan="4"| Indicative Perfect: Facio |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" !colspan="2"| Old !colspan="2"| Classical !colspan="2"| Old !colspan="2"| Classical |- |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" ! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | First Person | fuei || fuemos || fuī || fuimus || (fe)fecei || (fe)fecemos || fēcī || fēcimus |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | Second Person | fuistei || fuisteīs || fuistī || fuistis || (fe)fecistei || (fe)fecisteis || fēcistī || fēcistis |- !bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | Third Person | fued/fuit || fueront/-erom || fuit || fuērunt || (fe)feced/-et || (fe)feceront/-erom || fēcit || fēcērunt/-ēre |}
- Saturnian (verse form)